Theories and Research Methods in the Social Sciences

Background
Quantitative research- questionnaires, experiments- about measurement of a social phenomenon e.g. voting behaviour
Theory behind it- positivism, the view that all significant data are measureable via systematic observation. Non-observable phenomena are meaningless or not the subject of scientific investigation
Qualitative research- participant observation, observation, in-depth interviews, focus groups- about the interpretation of people’s actions, motives, beliefs etc.
Theory behind it- idealism, the view that we can use concepts, ideas to identify people’s beliefs as being of a type. Ideal types, typical constructs, categories (grounded theory)

Grounded Theory
This is a research method which is used to produce models of responses to certain kinds of situation e.g. the experience of early motherhood (Rogan). Researchers use interviews or focus groups to identify key themes in people’s experiences.
They note
1. The types of response when discussing an issue and label these ‘indicator concepts’ as they indicate a more fundamental underlying reality within the experience.
2. Each issue discussed might produce a common core e.g. early mothers talked about realising what obligations were entailed by motherhood, they also experienced a ‘coming to cope’ with motherhood. Both of these topics contained elements of
3. A core experience which was that of being alone, isolated
Hence by comparing the issues (axial coding) a common core of experience is identified. This then serves as a way of understanding people’s responses to the situation..the situation is seen to cause this response. The approach is often used in policy research e.g. health and social services. Another example is patients responses to the availability of information re their condition (types of cancer). Here the researchers characterised responses in terms of three basic categories: faith in ndoctors, hope as a way of putting off bad news and charity- a sense that other patients might need information/consultation more than themselves.
Methodological Basis
The research contains both interpretation (Idealism) and measurement-counting most common responses or elements of them and hence positivism. The models developed can then be used to predict people’s responses (positivism). It is neither purely quantitative nor qualitative but a mixture of both.

Critical Realism
Whilst concentrating on underlying causes (hidden mechanisms) critical realism shares the idealism of grounded theory in that reality is seen as constructed by human agents and that theories of it will be skewed by the perspectives of agents. Emancipation is seen as the goal of analysis. Critiques of capitalism, patriarchy and racism have all used critical realism.
Realist epistemology- starts from Hegel’s master-slave dialectic. Hegel- the slave knows the nature of reality as they do the work- act on nature etc.
Marx- alienation/fetishism is an objective category experienced by living labour as it is turned into an object. This experience is the basis of knowledge and emancipation as it leads to a desire to overthrow oppressive conditions.
Feminism (Sandra Harding, Jane Flax)- standpoint feminism takes up this model to explain why men cannot see the problems women face in patriarchal societies. Women have a privileged insight into patriarchal relations.
Anti Racism (Gilroy, Carter)- whilst racism is property of structures (institutional racism etc.) it is also a source of meanings. Hence ‘race’ is produced in interaction between agents and structures in ways that are not predictable i.e. it’s not ‘in’ individuals.
Bhaskar’s critical realism- agents produce structures and vice versa. Culture mediates between the two; meanings are had by agents but are not predictable.

Three levels of reality in Bhaskar’s approach:
empirical- perceptions, impressions, sensations
actual -events, states of affairs
real/deep - structures, mechanisms, powers/liabilities

Institutions can be seen to operate as underlying i.e. hidden mechanisms which produce visible effects from the actualisation of their powers as in sexism and racism e.g. institutions make the power of men look natural in the way it is actualised as ‘scientific objectivity’, ‘the facts’. For instance gender role socialisation and its inequalities becomes in turn, invisible. Similarly racism becomes invisible to white majority as it is not experienced by them. So institutional factors affect what we perceive.

Realism: an ethnographic case study
Porter’s participant observation study of ideologies in a large Irish hospital. (Porter, 1993, 2002). Cited in Bryman 2004
Porter concluded that whilst ethnic majority staff tended to be racist this tendency was counterbalanced by ideologies of professionalism in the interactions between doctors (ethnic minority) and nurses (ethnic majority).
Racism and professionalism were seen as generative structures (Bhaskar’s level 3). The study fund that racism was not sinficant in the interactions between staff but did play a role in comments made behind people’s backs. Racism did not significant in work relationships as these depended on performance (skills and qualifications) for evaluation of others. Minority doctors emphasised their professional standing in interactions with others and this neutralised potential for racist responses.
One structural mechanism was countered by the operation of another and racism did not become visible- except during prayers which seemed to mix the secular and the religious contexts for the ethnic majority. Potential for racism is there but cannot be actualised situationally (level 2) and therefore perceived (level 1).

Criticisms of Bhaskar’s Critical Realism
It is difficult to make the distinction between perception and events perceived as what is perceived tends to be influenced by the perceiver. The 2 faces or wine glass diagram suggests this point. Points of contact between different perceivers/observers might establish an alternative view of objectivity as a shared reality

The structure-agency model –this suggests a separation or dualism between agents and structures which might make it difficult to see how agents can give meanings to structures.
H.F. 12.05.11